A
History of Christian Theology
Mike Ervin
A
History of Christian Theology
This
teaching surveys the major developments in Christian theology, focusing on the
centrality of Jesus Christ and its implications for Christian life and worship.
- It begins with
the New Testament writings, particularly the letters of Paul, which
reflect early Christian worship of the exalted Christ.
- It examines the
theology of the early church, the emergence of official doctrine, and the
concept of heresy.
- Key doctrines
discussed include the Trinity, Incarnation, and grace.
- The course
progresses through medieval and Reformation theology, highlighting Eastern
Orthodox and Catholic distinctions, as well as Protestant developments.
- It concludes
with modern Catholic theology and ecumenical discussions post-Vatican II.
What
Is Theology?
Theology
is the critical reasoning about Christian doctrine and its implications for the
church and Christian life.
- Christian
theology is a normative discipline focused on what should be taught about
Jesus Christ.
- It emphasizes
the importance of understanding theological concepts in relation to
Christian life and practices.
- The course aims
for a generous engagement with diverse Christian traditions rather than
neutrality.
- It begins with
the New Testament and explores early church theology, Reformation issues,
and modern theological developments.
Early
Christian Proclamation
The
earliest Christian documents, particularly the New Testament, reveal the
foundational beliefs and practices of early Christians.
- The first
recorded Christian sermon is found in Acts, delivered by Peter at
Pentecost.
- The sermon
emphasizes Jesus's identity, crucifixion, and resurrection, urging
repentance and baptism.
- Early
Christians viewed Jesus's resurrection as a definitive defeat of death,
not merely life after death.
- The early
church recognized Jesus's preexistence and exaltation at God's right hand.
Pauline
Eschatology
Paul's
letters provide insight into early Christian eschatology, focusing on the
resurrection and life in Christ.
- Eschatology
refers to the doctrine of the end times, emphasizing the already and not
yet of Christ's work.
- Paul teaches
that the resurrection of the dead will occur at Christ's return, not as
souls leaving bodies but as a transformation of the mortal body.
- The Church is
described as the Body of Christ, where both Jews and Gentiles are
justified by faith.
- Baptism
signifies the initiation into this new life in Christ.
The
Synoptic Gospels
The
Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) narrate the life of Jesus and
emphasize his identity as the Messiah.
- These Gospels
are structured similarly and focus on Jesus's question, "Who do you
say I am?"
- They highlight
the significance of Jesus's suffering and death, portraying him as the Son
of God.
- The Gospels
illustrate the tension between Jesus's identity and the expectations of
the Jewish leaders and Roman authorities.
The
Gospel of John
The
Gospel of John presents a unique perspective on Jesus, emphasizing his divine
nature and identity.
- It is
structured differently from the Synoptic Gospels, focusing on Jesus's
"I am" statements and his preexistence.
- The Prologue
introduces Jesus as the Word made flesh, crucial for understanding the
Trinity and Incarnation.
- John's
narrative intensifies the controversies between Jesus and his opponents,
highlighting the theme of belief and unbelief.
Varieties
of Early Christianity
The
early Christian movement experienced significant diversity as it transitioned
from a Jewish to a predominantly Gentile context.
- Early Christian
writings beyond the New Testament reflect a Gentile perspective, diverging
from Jewish roots.
- Jewish
Christians became marginalized, continuing to observe the Law of Moses
without leaving extant writings.
- The
relationship between Christian belief and its Jewish origins remained a
central issue in early theological discussions.
Early
Christian Groups and Beliefs
The
early Christian landscape was diverse, featuring various sects with differing
beliefs about Jesus and the nature of God.
- The Nazarenes
were early Jewish Christians based in Jerusalem, rejected by mainstream
Judaism and Gentile Christians.
- Ebionites, a
splinter group from the Nazarenes, viewed Jesus as a righteous man but not
divine and rejected Paul’s teachings.
- Gnosticism, a
significant alternative to orthodox Christianity, emphasized salvation
through knowledge and viewed the physical world as evil.
- Marcion
proposed a dualistic view of God, distinguishing between the Jewish
creator God and a good, unknown God, and accepted only an edited Gospel of
Luke and Paul’s letters as scripture.
The
Emergence of Christian Doctrine
Christianity
developed a unique notion of doctrine, emphasizing the importance of sound
teaching and the distinction between orthodoxy and heresy.
- The concept of
doctrine, meaning “teaching,” became central to Christian theology, unlike
in paganism or Judaism.
- Heresy
originally referred to sects differing from the official teachings of the
Great Church, which sought universal beliefs.
- The Vincentian
Canon proposed that sound doctrine is what is taught “everywhere, always,
and by all.”
- The Great
Church’s structure helped resist new doctrines and conserve traditional
teachings, leading to the establishment of apostolic tradition as a norm.
Early
Christian Reading of Scriptures
Early
Christians interpreted Jewish scriptures in light of their faith in Christ,
often employing typology and allegory.
- Gentile
Christians struggled to reconcile the Law of Moses with their beliefs,
leading to a more spiritual reading of scriptures.
- Typology was a
common method, seeing Old Testament figures and events as prefiguring
Christ.
- Allegorical
interpretations were used to explain difficult passages, often blending
with typology.
- Early
Christians believed that the scriptures of Israel were prophetic witnesses
to Jesus Christ.
Philosophy's
Influence on Early Christianity
Ancient
philosophy significantly influenced early Christian thought, particularly
regarding concepts of happiness and the nature of God.
- Philosophy was
seen as a form of spirituality, with happiness defined as a life of
wisdom.
- Stoicism
emphasized the need to overcome passions for virtue, while Platonism
offered a non-material conception of God and the soul.
- Christian
theology adopted the Platonist view of the immortality of the soul,
leading to a widespread belief in the disembodied soul's journey to
heaven.
- The tension
between divine incomprehensibility and intelligibility shaped theological
discussions, particularly in the West.
The
Doctrine of the Trinity
The
doctrine of the Trinity articulates the Christian understanding of God as three
distinct persons in one essence.
- The Trinity
consists of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, each fully God but distinct
from one another.
- The Arian
controversy in the 4th century led to the formulation of Nicene theology,
affirming the Son's equality with the Father.
- The Council of
Nicaea established the term homoousios, meaning “of the same essence,” to
describe the relationship between the Father and the Son.
- The Nicene
Creed, developed further at the Council of Constantinople, affirmed the
divinity of the Holy Spirit as well.
The
Doctrine of the Incarnation
The
Incarnation refers to the belief that Jesus Christ is both fully divine and
fully human, central to Christian theology.
- The doctrine
asserts that the divine Word did not cease to be God when becoming human.
- Key figures
like Cyril of Alexandria emphasized the hypostatic union, where divine and
human natures coexist in one person.
- The Council of
Chalcedon affirmed the two natures of Christ, divine and human, without
confusion or separation.
- The concept of
the Incarnation is crucial for understanding the nature of Christ and his
role in salvation.
The
Doctrine of Grace
The
doctrine of grace addresses how believers become children of God and the
transformative power of divine grace.
- Grace is seen
as necessary for salvation, enabling believers to overcome sin and achieve
everlasting life.
- Augustine
emphasized the necessity of grace, arguing against Pelagianism, which
claimed humans could achieve righteousness without divine help.
- The concept of
original sin posits that all humans inherit a sinful nature, necessitating
grace for redemption.
- Augustine's
views on grace led to discussions on free will, predestination, and the
compatibility of grace with human agency.
The
Incomprehensible and the Supernatural
The
medieval period saw the development of the concepts of divine
incomprehensibility and the supernatural in Christian theology.
- The doctrine of
incomprehensibility asserts that God is beyond human understanding,
particularly in relation to the Trinity.
- Pseudo-Dionysius
emphasized the apophatic approach, speaking of God in terms of what He is
not.
- Augustine
viewed God as intelligible, suggesting that human minds can grasp divine
truths through grace.
- Thomas Aquinas
introduced the concept of supernatural grace, allowing for a vision of God
that transcends natural human capacities.
Eastern
Orthodox Theology
Eastern
Orthodox theology developed distinct practices and beliefs, particularly
regarding icons and the nature of divine light.
- The Second
Council of Nicaea defended the veneration of icons, distinguishing between
worship and veneration.
- Gregory Palamas
articulated the concept of the uncreated light of Transfiguration, which
transforms and deifies those who perceive it.
- The distinction
between the essence and energies of God became central, allowing for
participation in divine glory without seeing God's essence.
- Eastern
Orthodox theology emphasizes the transformative power of divine light and
the role of icons in spiritual life.
Atonement
and the Procession of the Spirit
The
schism between Eastern and Western Christianity was marked by differing views
on the procession of the Holy Spirit.
- The Western
church adopted the doctrine of double procession, stating the Holy Spirit
proceeds from the Father “and the Son.”
- This addition
to the Nicene Creed, known as filioque, was a point of contention leading
to the 1054 schism.
- Eastern
Orthodox theology maintains that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father
alone, emphasizing the monarchy of the Father.
- The differing
views on the procession of the Spirit reflect broader theological
divergences between Eastern and Western Christianity.
The
Doctrine of Double Procession
The
double procession is a theological concept regarding the relationship of the
Holy Spirit within the Trinity.
- Augustine
argued that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son.
- The Western
church supports this view, stating the Spirit proceeds from one principle,
not two.
- The Eastern
church contends that the Father is the sole source in the Trinity.
- Anselm supports
the Western view by stating that double procession differentiates the
begetting of the Son from the proceeding of the Spirit.
- Augustine
teaches that the Holy Spirit represents the love shared between the Father
and the Son, acting as the bond of union in the Trinity.
The
Doctrine of Atonement
The
doctrine of atonement explains how Christ's death reconciles humanity with God.
- Anselm
introduced the idea that Christ's death satisfies the demands of justice
for human sin.
- Atonement in
the Old Testament involved cleansing from sin through sacrifices.
- Anselm
emphasized that God became human to repay the debt of sin, as only humans
owe this debt.
- He argued that
leaving the debt unpaid would be unjust, equating mercy with the necessity
of satisfaction.
Scholastic
Theology and Its Development
Scholastic
theology represents a method of teaching and understanding Christian doctrine
through critical reasoning.
- Thomas Aquinas
is a key figure in scholasticism, merging Christian faith with
Aristotelian logic.
- Aquinas
developed the concept of analogy to speak about God, asserting that
creation reflects God's attributes.
- He rejected the
idea of uncreated grace, proposing that grace is a created form in the
soul.
- Aquinas's
doctrine of created grace emphasizes that it shapes the soul's activities
and is essential for supernatural virtues.
Understanding
the Sacraments
The
sacraments are sacred rites that confer grace and signify spiritual realities
in Christianity.
- There are seven
sacraments recognized by both Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.
- Baptism
signifies regeneration and is seen as essential for salvation.
- Penance
involves confession, contrition, absolution, and satisfaction for sins.
- The Eucharist
is a sacred meal where bread and wine are believed to become Christ's body
and blood through transubstantiation.
- Confirmation,
Anointing of the Sick, Marriage, and Holy Orders are also significant
sacraments with specific meanings and practices.
The
State of Souls After Death
Christian
theology addresses the state of souls after death, focusing on resurrection and
the interim state.
- The hope of
resurrection is central, emphasizing the restoration of life after death.
- The concept of
the soul's immortality and its separation from the body at death is
discussed.
- Augustine
hesitated to affirm that disembodied souls are fully blessed before
resurrection.
- The doctrine of
purgatory emerged from practices of prayer for the dead, seen as a place
of purification.
Martin
Luther and His Theological Impact
Martin
Luther's actions and beliefs initiated the Protestant Reformation, emphasizing
justification by faith.
- Luther
criticized the sale of indulgences and sought to reform the church rather
than split it.
- He
distinguished between the Law (what God commands) and the Gospel (what
Christ does for humanity).
- Justification
by faith alone (sola fide) became a central tenet of Luther's theology.
- Luther's views
on grace and faith led to a radical understanding of salvation, excluding
human merit.
Calvinism
and Reformed Theology
Calvinism
represents a branch of Protestantism that emphasizes God's sovereignty and
predestination.
- John Calvin's
teachings include the doctrine of predestination, which asserts that God
elects some for salvation.
- The Synod of
Dordt formalized Calvinist beliefs, including total depravity and
unconditional election.
- Calvin's
theology emphasizes assurance of salvation and the internal testimony of
the Holy Spirit.
- The Reformed
tradition diverges from Lutheranism in its understanding of sacraments and
church governance.
Disagreements
Among Protestant Traditions
Protestant
denominations exhibit significant theological disagreements, particularly
regarding the Eucharist and justification.
- Lutherans
affirm the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, while Reformed
theologians like Calvin present a more spiritual interpretation.
- The forensic
doctrine of justification is central to both Lutheran and Reformed
theology, but with differing emphases on internal transformation.
- The concept of
conversion varies, with Lutherans viewing baptism as the moment of rebirth
and Reformed theology emphasizing a distinct conversion experience.
The
Anabaptist Movement and Its Distinctives
The
Anabaptists represent a radical Reformation movement that rejected infant
baptism and emphasized adult believers' baptism.
- They believed
baptism should only be administered to those who profess personal faith.
- Anabaptists
viewed themselves as true Christians, rejecting the validity of other
churches' baptisms.
- Their pacifism
and separation from state churches led to persecution from both Catholics
and Protestants.
- The movement
included various strands, including spiritualist and rationalist
perspectives, and faced significant challenges during the 16th century.
Anglicanism
and Puritanism in Context
Anglicanism
represents a middle way between Catholicism and Protestantism, while Puritanism
sought further reform within the Church of England.
- The Anglican
Church is characterized by its Book of Common Prayer and the 39 Articles,
which reflect a blend of Catholic and Reformed elements.
- Puritans aimed
to purify the church of remaining Catholic practices and emphasized a more
rigorous moral and spiritual life.
- The Westminster
Confession became a key document for Puritan theology, articulating
covenant theology and church governance issues.
- Disagreements
over church governance led to the development of Presbyterian and
Independent congregationalist movements within Puritanism.
Origins
and Distinctions of Baptists
Baptists
emerged from Puritan Separatist roots, emphasizing believer's baptism and
congregational autonomy.
- Baptists reject
infant baptism, insisting only believers can be baptized.
- They differ
from Anabaptists, although both groups share similar views on baptism and
sacraments.
- Baptists
originated in England, while Anabaptists arose in Switzerland.
- The church is
viewed as a local congregation of covenanted believers, not based on
geographical parishes.
- Baptists
advocate for religious liberty, having faced persecution and illegality in
their early history.
- Key theological
constants include congregational autonomy, regenerate church membership,
and the Bible as sole authority.
Theological
Diversity Among Baptists
Baptist
theology is characterized by significant diversity, with key debates on
Calvinism and sacraments.
- Baptists often
debate their alignment with Calvinism, particularly between General and
Particular Baptists.
- The
hyper-Calvinist view, prevalent in the 18th century, argued against
preaching grace to the reprobate.
- Most Baptists
view the Lord’s Supper as a symbol, not a sacrament, and some practice
foot washing as an ordinance.
- Landmarkism, a
movement among Southern Baptists, emphasized strict adherence to Baptist
identity and practices.
Quaker
Beliefs and Practices
Quakers,
or the Religious Society of Friends, emphasize radical immediacy and inner
revelation.
- They believe in
the inner light of divine revelation available to all, rejecting the need
for scripture as the sole authority.
- Quakers
advocate for egalitarianism and pacifism, promoting religious liberty for
all.
- Their meetings
lack formal liturgy, allowing members to speak as the Spirit moves them.
Pietism
and the Turn to Experience
Pietism
arose as a reaction against Protestant scholasticism, emphasizing personal
piety and experience.
- Jacob Philip
Spener's Pia Desideria called for increased lay engagement with scripture
and piety.
- Pietism
contrasts with Protestant scholasticism, which focused on systematic
proofs of doctrine.
- The movement
emphasizes the importance of personal experience and inner faith over mere
intellectual assent.
Revivalism's
Impact on Protestantism
Revivalism
emerged as a response to the Puritan requirement for a conversion experience
for church membership.
- The Halfway
Covenant allowed baptized non-members to have their children baptized,
addressing dwindling church membership.
- Jonathan
Edwards sparked revivals, emphasizing God's grace in conversion and the
necessity of personal experience.
- Revivalism led
to the emergence of various theological perspectives, including Calvinist
and Arminian views on conversion.
Holiness
and Pentecostal Movements
The
Holiness movement and Pentecostalism emphasize sanctification and the baptism
of the Holy Spirit.
- John Wesley's
theology stressed the possibility of Christian perfection and the pursuit
of holiness.
- Phoebe Palmer
promoted the "shorter way" to sanctification through inner faith
and surrender to God.
- Pentecostalism,
emerging from Holiness traditions, emphasizes the baptism of the Holy
Spirit and speaking in tongues.
Deism
and Liberal Protestantism
Deism
arose during the Enlightenment, advocating for natural religion over revealed
religion.
- Deists viewed
reason as the basis for judging religious beliefs, rejecting the
supernatural and miracles.
- Liberal
Protestantism sought to save faith by grounding it in experience rather
than dogma, influenced by Romanticism.
- Friedrich
Schleiermacher emphasized piety as a feeling preceding dogma, leading to a
focus on the historical Jesus.
Neo-Orthodoxy
and Its Key Figures
Neo-Orthodoxy,
influenced by Kierkegaard, emphasizes existential faith and revelation.
- Karl Barth is a
central figure, advocating for a theology rooted in the revelation of God
in Christ.
- Barth rejected
natural theology and emphasized the event of revelation as a miracle of
grace.
- The doctrine of
election in Barth's theology presents Christ as the chosen one for
humanity's salvation.
Evolution
of Evangelicalism and Fundamentalism
Evangelicalism
and Fundamentalism evolved from the Fundamentalist-modernist controversy in the
early 20th century.
- Fundamentalism
emerged in response to perceived liberalism in theology, emphasizing core
doctrines.
- The term
"evangelical" encompasses a broader range of conservative
Protestant movements, including those that distanced themselves from
Fundamentalism.
- Dispensationalism,
a key element of Fundamentalist theology, emphasizes a literal
interpretation of prophecy and premillennialism.
Protestantism's
Relationship with Modernity
Protestantism
has a complex relationship with modernity, influencing and being influenced by
secularization.
- The
Enlightenment's emphasis on reason led to a decline in the authority of
traditional religious beliefs.
- Modernity's
critique of tradition raises questions about the rationality of faith and
the role of experience in religion.
- Postmodernism
challenges the assumptions of modernity, suggesting that traditions can
inform rational thought rather than oppose it.
Catholic
Theologies of Grace
Catholic
responses to Protestantism were articulated during the Council of Trent,
focusing on grace and justification.
- Trent taught
that justification involves infused righteousness, contrasting with the
Protestant view of imputed righteousness.
- The debate
between Jesuits and Dominicans centered on the role of free will and grace
in salvation.
- Jesuits
emphasized human choice in accepting grace, while Dominicans stressed the
efficacy of grace in moving the will.
Catholic
Mystical Theology Overview
Catholic
mystical theology explores the higher stages of supernatural grace and the
experience of God.
- Key figures
include Saint Teresa of Avila and Saint John of the Cross, who describe
the soul's journey toward God.
- Teresa's
mystical theology emphasizes love and desire for God, while John speaks of
the "dark night of the soul."
- The highest
stage of mystical experience is the spiritual marriage, representing a
profound union with God.
Semi-Quietism
and Pure Love Theology
Semi-Quietism
is a theological concept by Francois Fénelon that emphasizes loving God without
selfish desires, which was condemned by the Catholic Church.
- Fénelon’s
theology of pure love was influenced by Saint Francis de Sales, focusing
on love over intellect.
- He proposed
that pure love involves a holy indifference to anything but God’s will.
- The Catholic
Church, following Augustine and Aquinas, insists that seeking happiness in
God is morally right and essential.
- The appeal of
pure love theology reflects modernity's challenge to Catholic theology,
questioning inherent teleology in nature.
Vatican
I and Papal Infallibility
The
First Vatican Council defined papal infallibility and established the authority
of the pope in determining Catholic doctrine.
- Vatican I
(1870) affirmed the pope's authority to define doctrine without an
ecumenical council's consent.
- Pope Pius IX
defined the Immaculate Conception of Mary in the papal bull Ineffabilis
Deus in 1854.
- The doctrine of
the Assumption of Mary was defined infallibly by Pope Pius XII in 1950.
- The council's
decrees emphasized the pope's primacy and jurisdiction over the entire
church.
Vatican
II and Ecumenical Movement
The
Second Vatican Council marked a significant shift in the Catholic Church's
approach to modernity and ecumenism.
- Vatican II
(1962-1965) aimed to update the church and foster dialogue with the modern
world.
- The council
defined the church as the "people of God," rejecting clericalism
and emphasizing community.
- It affirmed
religious freedom and recognized the validity of other Christian
denominations.
- The council
committed the Roman Catholic Church to the ecumenical movement, seeking
unity among all churches.
Post-Vatican
II Theological Developments
The
aftermath of Vatican II led to significant changes and debates within Catholic
theology and its relationship with other Christian traditions.
- Traditionalist
Catholics often oppose Vatican II, viewing it as a departure from
unchangeable doctrine.
- Progressive
Catholics embrace the council's spirit, advocating for further reforms.
- Key debates
include vernacular masses, religious freedom, and the ordination of women.
- Ecumenical
dialogues have emerged between Catholics and Protestants, leading to new
theological perspectives.
Universal
Salvation and Theological Hope
The
concept of universal salvation has gained traction in contemporary Catholic
theology, influenced by figures like von Balthasar.
- The hope for
universal salvation suggests that all human beings may ultimately be
included in Christ's redemptive work.
- John Paul II
emphasized the inclusion of all in salvation, drawing from both Protestant
and Catholic theological insights.
- Von Balthasar's
theology focuses on the beauty of Christ's suffering and the potential for
redemption even for the most forsaken.
- This proposal
has sparked significant theological debate within the Christian tradition.
Theological
Terms and Concepts
The
teaching provides definitions and explanations of various theological terms and
concepts relevant to Christian doctrine and history.
- Lioque: Latin term meaning “and of the Son,” related to the Nicene Creed
and the doctrine of double procession, rejected by Eastern Orthodox.
- Forensic
Justification: Doctrine in Protestantism where believers are
declared righteous by God through faith in Christ's merits.
- Fundamentalism: 20th-century movement emphasizing scriptural infallibility and
opposing liberal Protestantism.
- Glossolalia: Term for “speaking in tongues,” a phenomenon of ecstatic worship
attributed to the Holy Spirit.
- Gnosticism: Non-orthodox forms of Christianity emphasizing special knowledge
for salvation.
- Gospel: Means “good news,” central to Luther's theology contrasting Law
and Gospel.
- Grace: Unmerited mercy of God, crucial in Augustinian theology.
- Great Awakening: Religious revival in early 1740s America, led by Jonathan Edwards.
- Halfway
Covenant: Policy allowing baptized children of church
members to join without conversion, adopted in 1662.
- Harrowing of
Hell: Teaching that Jesus descended into hell after
death to rescue souls.
- Hedonism: Philosophical view that happiness is derived from pleasure,
advocating a tranquil life.
- Heresiologists: Church fathers who wrote against heresy, providing insights into
diverse Christian groups.
- Heresy: Doctrines rejected by the Great Church as not orthodox.
- Hierarchy: Church governance structure, with Roman Catholic and Eastern
Orthodox churches being hierarchical.
- High Church vs.
Low Church: Distinction in Anglicanism regarding views on
sacraments and church governance.
- Holiness
Movement: 19th-century movement advocating entire
sanctification, founded by Phoebe Palmer.
- Hypostasis: Greek term for individual being, used in discussions of the
Trinity.
- Immaculate
Conception: Catholic doctrine that Mary was conceived
without original sin.
- Imputation: Crediting Christ's righteousness to believers, key in forensic
justification.
- Incarnation: Doctrine of Christ being both God and man.
- Indulgence: Promise by the church for reduction of purgatory time, often
purchased.
- Predestination: Doctrine of God's eternal plan for salvation or damnation.
- Purgatory: Catholic belief in a state of purification after death for
redeemed souls.
Historical
Figures and Movements
The
teaching outlines significant historical figures and movements that shaped
Christian theology and practice.
- Amyraut, Moses: French Protestant advocating a modified Calvinism known as
Amyraldianism.
- Anselm: Early medieval theologian known for his satisfaction theory of
atonement.
- Aquinas, Thomas: Central figure in medieval scholasticism, known for integrating
Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology.
- Arius: Presbyters whose teachings on the Trinity were condemned at
Nicaea.
- Arminius,
Jacobus: Originator of Arminianism, rejected by
Calvinists at the Synod of Dordt.
- Augustine: Influential theologian known for doctrines of grace, original sin,
and predestination.
- Balthasar, Hans
Urs von: Swiss theologian emphasizing beauty in theology
and proposing a new theology of Holy Saturday.
- Barth, Karl: Founding figure of Neo Orthodoxy, critical of liberal
Protestantism.
- Calvin, John: Influential Reformed theologian known for his work
"Institutes" and doctrine of justification by faith.
- Edwards,
Jonathan: Key figure in the Great Awakening and American
revivalism.
- Luther, Martin: Founding figure of Protestantism, known for his doctrine of
justification by faith alone.
- John Paul II: Pope known for his theology of the body and defense of Catholic
doctrines.
Key
Doctrinal Developments
The
teaching highlights important doctrinal developments and their implications for
Christian theology.
- Council of
Nicaea: Established foundational trinitarian doctrine,
condemning Arianism.
- Council of
Trent: Defined Catholic responses to Protestantism and
initiated reforms within the church.
- Vatican II: Aimed at updating the church's relationship with the modern world
and promoting ecumenism.
- Predestination
and Grace: Central to Reformed theology, emphasizing God's
sovereignty in salvation.
- Transubstantiation: Catholic doctrine explaining the Eucharistic change of bread and
wine into Christ's body and blood.
- Sola Fide, Sola
Gratia, Sola Scriptura: Key principles of Protestant
Reformation emphasizing faith, grace, and scripture as the sole authority.
Christian
Practices and Beliefs
The
teaching discusses various Christian practices and beliefs that have evolved over
time.
- Sacraments: Rites seen as means of grace, with differing views among
denominations.
- Penance: Sacrament involving confession and absolution, significant in
Catholic practice.
- Revivalism: Focus on preaching and conversion experiences, prominent in
Wesleyan and Reformed traditions.
- Mysticism: Emphasizes direct experience of God, influencing various
theological movements.
- Pietism: Reform movement emphasizing personal faith and heartfelt devotion,
influencing Methodism.
This
summary encapsulates the key theological terms, historical figures, doctrinal
developments, and Christian practices discussed in the provided text.
Historical
Figures in Christian Theology
The
teaching provides biographical notes on significant figures in Christian theology
and their contributions to various theological movements and doctrines.
- Thomas Müntzer
(c. 1490–1525): A pastor and leader in the Peasant Revolt, advocating for
violent overthrow based on spiritual authority.
- Nestorius
(early 5th century): Archbishop who denied Mary as the Mother of God,
leading to his condemnation at the Council of Ephesus in 431.
- Origen (c.
185–254): Alexandrian theologian known for allegorical exegesis, whose
controversial views were rejected posthumously.
- Andreas
Osiander (1498–1552): Lutheran theologian whose doctrine of justification
was rejected by both Reformed and Lutheran traditions.
- John Owen
(1616–1683): English Puritan known for advocating limited atonement within
high Calvinism.
- Thomas Paine
(1737–1809): American political writer and deist, author of "Common
Sense" and "The Age of Reason."
- Gregory Palamas
(1296–1359): Byzantine theologian known for distinguishing between divine
essence and energies.
- Phoebe Palmer
(1807–1874): American Methodist who contributed to the Holiness movement
with her teachings on sanctification.
- Apostle Paul
(c. 4 B.C.–c. A.D. 64): Early Christian missionary whose letters form
the earliest New Testament documents.
- Pelagius
(410–420): British monk whose teachings led to the development of
Pelagianism, countered by Augustine's doctrine of grace.
- Philo of
Alexandria (c. 20 B.C.–A.D. 50): Jewish philosopher whose allegorical
interpretation influenced early Christian writers.
- Pope Pius IX
(1792–1878): Longest-reigning pope who defined the Immaculate Conception
and papal infallibility.
- Plato (c. 427
B.C.–c. 348 B.C.): Greek philosopher whose non-materialist tradition
influenced Christian theology.
- Plotinus (c.
A.D. 205–270): Founder of neo-Platonism, a significant source for
Christian Platonism.
- Karl Rahner
(1904–1984): German Jesuit theologian influential at the Second Vatican
Council.
- Francis de
Sales (1567–1622): Roman Catholic bishop known for influential devotional
writings.
- Friedrich
Schleiermacher (1768–1834): Founding figure of Protestant liberalism and
theologian in the Reformed church.
- C. I. Scofield
(1843–1921): Dispensationalist theologian and editor of the influential
Scofield Reference Bible.
- Michael
Servetus (c. 1511–1553): Anti-Trinitarian theologian executed in Geneva.
- Menno Simons
(1496–1561): Leader of the Anabaptist movement, later known as Mennonites.
- Philipp Jakob
Spener (1635–1705): Founder of Pietism, advocating for reform in the
Lutheran church.
- Adrienne von
Speyr (1902–1967): Swiss theologian whose visionary experiences inspired
von Balthasar.
- Solomon
Stoddard (1643–1729): Puritan minister who allowed unregenerate members to
take communion.
- Teresa of Avila
(1515–1582): Spanish nun known for her mystical theology and experiences.
- Tertullian (c.
160–225): North African theologian and the first major Latin Christian
author.
- Paul Tillich
(1886–1965): German theologian and philosopher influential in the United
States.
- Valentinus (c.
100–c. 175): Author of a sophisticated version of Gnosticism, active in
Rome.
- Voltaire
(1694–1778): French Enlightenment writer and critic of Christianity.
- Francis Wayland
(1796–1865): Baptist minister and advocate for congregational autonomy.
- John Wesley
(1703–1791): Anglican priest and co-founder of Methodism, emphasizing
sanctification.
- Count Nikolaus
Ludwig von Zinzendorf (1700–1760): Leader of the Moravian community
emphasizing "heart Christianity."
- Ulrich Zwingli
(1484–1531): Swiss theologian known for his low view of the Eucharist.
Bibliography
of Theological Works
The
teaching lists significant theological works and authors that have shaped Christian
thought throughout history.
- Ante-Nicene
Fathers: A collection of writings by early church fathers, reprinted by
various publishers.
- The Bible,
English Standard Version: Recommended translation for its accuracy and
literary quality.
- Exploring
Protestant Traditions by W. David Buschcart: An introduction to various
Protestant traditions.
- Streams of
Living Water by Richard J. Foster: A guide to spiritual practices in
Christianity.
- A History of
Christian Thought by Justo González: A thorough and readable history of
Christian thought.
- Early Christian
Doctrines by J. N. D. Kelly: A comprehensive introduction to ancient
orthodox doctrines.
- Creeds of the
Churches by John H. Leith: A collection of creeds and confessions from
various denominations.
- Modern
Christian Thought by James C. Livingston: Overview of 19th-century
European theology.
- The New
Catholic Encyclopedia: Reference source for Catholic doctrine and
controversies.
- Nicene and
Post-Nicene Fathers: A complete collection of English writings by church
fathers.
- The Story of
Christian Theology by Roger E. Olson: A readable account of Christian
theology, though weak on modern Catholicism.
- The Christian
Tradition by Jaroslav Pelikan: A comprehensive history of Christian
doctrine in five volumes.
- The Creeds of
Christendom by Philip Schaff: A classic collection of creeds and
documents.
- Catechism of
the Catholic Church: Official catechism authorized by the Vatican.
- The Teachings
of the Church Fathers by John R. Willis: Presentation of Roman Catholic
doctrine based on church fathers' writings.
Specialized
Theological Texts
The
teaching highlights specialized theological works that delve into specific
doctrines and figures in Christian history.
- The Major Works
by Anselm: A collection of Anselm’s writings, including his treatise on
atonement.
- Introduction to
St. Thomas Aquinas: A selection of texts from Aquinas’s major writings.
- True
Christianity by Johann Arndt: An influential work for the Pietist
movement.
- Works of St.
Augustine: Key writings addressing original sin, grace, and
predestination.
- The Divine
Comedy by Dante Alighieri: A medieval epic exploring themes of justice and
theology.
- The Gnostic
Religion by Hans Jonas: An introduction to Gnostic thought.
- Institutes of
the Christian Religion by John Calvin: The most influential systematic
theology text in Protestantism.
- Church
Dogmatics by Karl Barth: A multi-volume work on Christian doctrine.
- The Gnostic
Gospels by Elaine Pagels: A popular introduction to ancient Gnosticism.
- The Triads by
Gregory Palamas: Selections from Palamas’s major theological work.
- The Collected
Works of St. John of the Cross: Includes key writings on mystical
theology.
- The Azusa
Street Revival by Roberts Liardon: A history of Pentecostalism and key
figures.
- The Teachings
of the Church Fathers by John R. Willis: A systematic presentation of
Roman Catholic doctrine.
This summary encapsulates the key figures, works, and
theological movements that have shaped Christian thought throughout history.
A History of Christian Theology
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