American Religious History Overview
Mike Ervin
American Religious History Overview
This teaching is a comprehensive summary based on a guidebook
for a class on American Religious History, taught by Professor Patrick N.
Allitt at Emory University, covering the evolution and diversity of religious
life in America from early European contact to the late 20th century.
The course explores the diverse and vibrant religious
landscape of America from early European contact to the late 20th century.
- The teaching examines the reasons behind America's
unique religious vitality compared to other industrial nations.
- It discusses the interplay between religion and
various social, economic, and political factors throughout American
history.
- Key figures and events, such as the Puritans, Joseph
Smith, and the Salem witch trials, are highlighted to illustrate the
complexities of American religious life.
- The teaching also addresses the impact of immigration
and the evolution of religious thought in response to modern challenges.
Major Features of American Religious History
This section outlines the distinct characteristics of
American religious life and the theories explaining its vitality.
- American religious life is marked by a high level of
church attendance and public expressions of faith, unlike many European
nations.
- The separation of church and state has allowed
religion to thrive without political discredit.
- Ethnic diversity contributes to religious pluralism,
as immigrants often retain their faith while adapting to American culture.
- The historical revival of interest in American
religious history is partly due to the failure of secularization theory,
which predicted a decline in religious belief.
The European Background of American Religion
This section discusses the religious context in Europe that
influenced the migration and settlement patterns in America.
- The Reformation created deep religious divisions in
Europe, impacting migration to the New World.
- Martin Luther's principles, such as salvation by faith
alone, challenged Catholic traditions and led to the rise of
Protestantism.
- The English Reformation, driven by political motives,
resulted in the establishment of the Church of England and the emergence
of Puritanism.
- The rise of printing and literacy allowed for broader
access to the Bible, facilitating diverse interpretations and contributing
to Protestant fragmentation.
Native American Religious Traditions
This section highlights the complex religious beliefs and
practices of Native Americans prior to European contact.
- Native American religions were deeply intertwined with
daily life, involving rituals to appease various spirits.
- Common beliefs included a Great Spirit and lesser
spirits inhabiting nature, with rituals surrounding everyday activities.
- European accounts of Native American religions are
often biased, leading to misunderstandings of their complexity.
- Despite differences, both Native American and European
religions shared concepts of good and evil spirits, life after death, and
sacrificial practices.
The Puritans and Their Influence
This section focuses on the Puritan movement and its
significant impact on American religious history.
- Puritans sought to reform the Church of England and
establish a "pure" form of worship, leading to their migration
to America.
- They contributed to the development of a distinct
American religious identity, emphasizing community and moral conduct.
- The Puritan legacy includes the establishment of
educational institutions and a strong emphasis on literacy and biblical
study.
- Their experiences shaped early American society,
influencing social norms, governance, and religious practices.
The Establishment of Puritan Society
The Puritans transitioned from opposition to the Anglican
Church to becoming the establishment in New England.
- The first generation of Puritans developed their ideas
in opposition to the Anglican Church.
- They founded Plimoth Plantation in 1620 as radical
separatists.
- The non-separatist Puritans settled Massachusetts Bay
in 1630, remaining nominally loyal to the Church of England.
- Leaders like John Winthrop aimed to provide an
inspiring example to England and expected to return victorious.
- They established a Congregational system of
self-governing churches in Massachusetts and Connecticut.
- Church membership was required for political
participation, aligning with Calvin’s Genevan ideal.
- Offenses like blasphemy and misuse of the Sabbath were
punishable.
- Education was emphasized, leading to nearly universal
literacy in New England.
- Preaching was central to worship, with two Sunday
sermons and special sermons for various occasions.
- The Puritans were intolerant of dissent, expelling
figures like Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams.
Puritan Beliefs on Salvation and Damnation
Puritans were deeply concerned with their salvation and
sought signs of being among God's chosen.
- They believed
the church should consist only of the godly, while acknowledging God's
predestination.
- Covenant
theology was used to interpret God's will, suggesting that He was not
capricious.
- Evidence of
conversion was required for full church membership, with conversion seen
as a multi-stage process.
- Women’s
conversion testimonies were often read by men due to Paul’s strictures
against women speaking in church.
- Even the
converted struggled with doubts about their salvation, as reflected in Ann
Bradstreet's poetry.
The Tradition of Jeremiads in Puritan Society
Jeremiads reflected Puritan fears of moral decline and the
need to uphold their founding ideals.
- The Puritan
victors in the English Civil Wars did not align with their church
organization ideals.
- Declining
fervor in the second generation led to the "half-way covenant"
of 1662.
- They believed
in signs from God, interpreting storms and failed harvests as divine
anger.
- Events like the
Indian Wars were seen as divine chastisement.
Witchcraft and the Puritan Perception of Evil
Puritans viewed witches as agents of the devil, leading to
widespread witch hunts.
- European witch persecution influenced New England's
witchcraft allegations.
- Witches were often women who were socially
marginalized or deemed argumentative.
- The Salem witch trials of 1692–1693 resulted in 19
executions, primarily of women.
- The trials were exacerbated by social tensions and the
aftermath of the Glorious Revolution.
The Impact of Economic Success on Puritanism
Puritans faced a paradox where their economic success
conflicted with their religious values.
- They sought signs of God's favor but found their
prosperity leading to worldly distractions.
- Wealth was seen as a potential sign of election, yet
love of money was viewed as a temptation from Satan.
Religious Diversity in Colonial America
Colonial America was marked by significant religious and
ethnic diversity, laying the groundwork for future pluralism.
- Settlers included Anglicans, Catholics, Puritans,
Quakers, and various European Protestant groups.
- Most colonies were initially intolerant, but diversity
eventually fostered religious pluralism.
- Virginia's Anglican Church struggled to maintain
attendance due to geographical dispersal.
- Maryland, founded as a Catholic colony, became the
first to decree religious freedom but faced challenges from Protestant
settlers.
- Quakers, led by William Penn, established Pennsylvania
as a model of religious tolerance.
The Great Awakening's Influence on American Religion
The Great Awakening, led by figures like George Whitefield,
transformed American religious life in the 1740s.
- Whitefield's revivals attracted massive crowds and
emphasized personal conversion.
- The Tennent family and Jonathan Edwards were key
figures in supporting revivalism.
- Edwards adapted Enlightenment ideas to Puritan
theology, emphasizing God's goodness in nature.
- Revivalism led to divisions within denominations,
creating "Old Lights" and "New Lights."
Religion's Role in the American Revolution
Religious beliefs significantly influenced the American
Revolution, with both sides claiming divine support.
- Revolutionary leaders like Washington and Jefferson
were not primarily religiously motivated.
- Both revolutionaries and loyalists interpreted events
through a religious lens, with some advocating for obedience to authority.
- The war prompted the formation of millennial sects
that viewed the conflict as a sign of the "End Times."
The Second Great Awakening's Social Impact
The Second Great Awakening spurred social reforms and
increased women's roles in religion.
- Methodism grew rapidly, especially on the frontier,
with itinerant ministers spreading the faith.
- Charles Grandison Finney introduced revival techniques
that emphasized orchestrated conversions.
- The movement led to the establishment of various
social reform organizations, including temperance and abolitionist groups.
- Women began to take on leadership roles in religious
movements, advocating for social change.
The Oneida Community and Mormonism
The Oneida Community and Mormonism represented radical
religious experiments in the 19th century.
- John Humphrey Noyes founded the Oneida Community,
promoting "complex marriage" and eugenics.
- The community faced external pressures and eventually
closed, but its business thrived.
- Joseph Smith founded Mormonism, claiming divine
revelations and leading followers to Utah after facing persecution.
- The Mormons' practice of polygamy led to significant
controversy and delayed statehood for Utah.
The Evolution of American Catholicism
Catholicism in America evolved from a small population at
the Revolution to a significant force by the 19th century.
- The Irish immigration wave in the 1820s and 1830s
transformed the Catholic demographic.
- Anti-Catholic sentiment grew among Protestants,
leading to riots and discrimination.
- Catholic leaders worked to establish educational
institutions and maintain community identity amidst hostility.
African-American Religious Experience
African-American religion blended African traditions with
Christianity, significantly impacting the abolitionist movement.
- Many slaves were converted during the Second Great
Awakening, leading to the formation of separate black denominations.
- Racial prejudice persisted, prompting free blacks to
create their own religious communities.
- The abolitionist movement was heavily influenced by
evangelical Christianity, leading to significant church schisms over
slavery.
Religion During the Civil War
Both Union and Confederate soldiers viewed the Civil War as
a divine struggle, interpreting events through a religious lens.
- Soldiers believed they were fighting for a godly
cause, with battlefield victories seen as signs of divine favor.
- Lincoln's speeches invoked God's judgment on the
nation, linking the war to moral issues.
- The concept of a "lost cause" emerged among
Confederates, framing their defeat in religious terms.
Victorian Developments in American Religion
The late 19th century saw new religious movements and
increased female participation in public religious life.
- Movements like Christian Science and Seventh Day
Adventism linked spirituality to health and reform.
- Women played a prominent role in the temperance and
suffrage movements, challenging traditional gender roles.
- Literature featuring Jesus reflected varying
interpretations of masculinity and femininity in religious contexts.
Theological Dilemmas of the 19th Century
The rise of Darwinian biology and comparative religion
challenged traditional Christian beliefs.
- Darwin's theories contradicted the Genesis creation
story, leading to theological debates.
- Religious intellectuals split over how to reconcile
scientific findings with faith, creating a divide between traditionalists
and modernists.
Evolutionary Thought and Christianity
Darwin's theory of evolution posed significant challenges
to traditional Christian beliefs, leading to varied responses among different
Christian groups.
- Darwin's "Origin of Species" (1859)
suggested species evolve through natural selection, contradicting the idea
of special creation.
- His concept of random mutation implied a lack of
purpose in evolution.
- Liberal Protestants embraced Darwin, seeking to
harmonize evolution with Christianity, believing it could strengthen their
faith.
- More orthodox Christians, like Charles Hodge, rejected
this reconciliation, viewing Darwinism as atheism.
- Social Darwinism raised questions about wealth
disparities, with some advocating for social justice while others accepted
poverty as a natural outcome of evolution.
Jewish Migration and Adaptation in America
The Jewish experience in America involved significant
adaptation and transformation due to diverse waves of immigration.
- The first large Jewish migration from Germany in the
mid-19th century consisted mainly of Reform Jews who were well
assimilated.
- The second wave came from Eastern Europe, primarily
Orthodox Jews, who faced persecution and struggled to maintain their
traditions.
- The Conservative movement emerged in response to the
challenges faced by these immigrants, seeking to balance tradition with
modernity.
- Many Jews turned to socialism or Zionism as
alternatives to religious faith during this period.
The Rise of Fundamentalism in America
The early 20th century saw a division in Protestant
churches, leading to the rise of fundamentalism as a reaction against
modernism.
- Fundamentalists insisted on the Bible's absolute
reliability and opposed evolutionary theory.
- Evangelists like Dwight Moody and Billy Sunday
emphasized individual salvation and rejected the Social Gospel's
collective approach.
- The publication of "The Fundamentals"
(1910-1915) outlined key tenets of fundamentalism, including the inerrancy
of the Bible.
- The Scopes Monkey Trial (1925) symbolized the conflict
between modernism and fundamentalism, with fundamentalists facing public
relations challenges despite legal victories.
Religion and War in the 20th Century
American religious responses to war evolved significantly
from World War I through the Cold War, reflecting changing attitudes toward
conflict and peace.
- World War I saw churches supporting the war effort,
with anti-German sentiment leading to persecution of pacifist groups.
- After the war, many clergy joined the peace movement,
but skepticism about the Holocaust later emerged.
- World War II prompted a reevaluation of pacifism, with
many churches supporting the war against Nazism.
- The Vietnam War led to widespread opposition among
clergy, resulting in a shift toward anti-war activism in the 1970s.
Transformations in 20th Century Catholicism
Catholicism in America underwent significant changes due to
immigration, social dynamics, and the Second Vatican Council.
- Centralizing bishops sought to impose order on diverse
immigrant customs while emphasizing loyalty to America.
- Anti-Catholic prejudice persisted, exemplified by the
1928 presidential campaign of Al Smith and the election of John F. Kennedy
in 1960.
- The Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) modernized
Catholic practices, allowing services in English and diminishing the
importance of confession.
- Catholic teachings on sexuality, particularly
regarding contraception and abortion, remained contentious and led to
debates within the church.
The Affluent Society and Religious Revival
Post-World War II America experienced a religious revival
characterized by increased church membership and new forms of religious
expression.
- Church membership grew to over 60% of the population
by the mid-1950s, driven by suburbanization and fears of nuclear
annihilation.
- Clergy shifted focus from preaching to counseling,
reflecting changing societal needs.
- The era saw a boom in church building, with many
churches adopting modern architectural styles.
- Prominent religious figures like Billy Graham and
Fulton Sheen gained popularity, contributing to the feel-good religious
culture of the time.
The Civil Rights Movement and Religion
The civil rights movement was significantly influenced by
religious leaders and organizations, shaping its moral framework and
strategies.
- Black ministers, including Martin Luther King Jr.,
played crucial roles in advocating for civil rights through nonviolent
protest.
- The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
was founded to coordinate civil rights efforts, emphasizing biblical
language and moral authority.
- The movement faced opposition from some black church
leaders and segregationists who claimed religious justification for their
views.
- The Nation of Islam offered an alternative vision,
promoting black pride and separatism, exemplified by figures like Malcolm
X.
The Counterculture and Feminism in Religion
The 1960s counterculture and feminist movements prompted
significant changes in religious practices and beliefs in America.
- Many young people turned to the Jesus movement,
seeking a return to the early church's communal and spiritual values.
- The women's movement challenged traditional roles in
Judaism and Christianity, leading to debates over women's ordination and
leadership.
- Some women sought alternative spiritual paths,
including goddess worship and witchcraft, as a response to patriarchal
structures.
- Environmentalism emerged as a religious concern,
raising questions about humanity's relationship with nature and the
potential for idolatry.
Asian Religions and Their American Influence
Asian religions began to gain traction in America,
influenced by both immigration and cultural dissatisfaction with traditional
Western religions.
- Orthodox Christianity was introduced through Russian
immigrants, with practices resembling Eastern religions.
- Theosophy and figures like Swami Vivekenanda
popularized Eastern philosophies in the late 19th century.
- The Beat Generation embraced Zen Buddhism as a
critique of materialism, leading to a broader interest in meditation and
Eastern practices.
- Post-1965 immigration laws brought large numbers of
Asians to America, leading to the establishment of vibrant communities
practicing Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.
Church and State: Legal Developments
The relationship between church and state has been shaped
by Supreme Court decisions, particularly regarding the Establishment Clause and
free exercise of religion.
- The Supreme Court's rulings in the 1960s prohibited
school prayer and Bible reading, heightening the separation between church
and state.
- Cases like Engel v. Vitale and Schempp v. Abington
Township sparked national debates and attempts to amend the Constitution.
- The Lemon test established criteria for evaluating
government aid to religious institutions, further complicating
church-state relations.
- The rise of the Moral Majority in the 1980s reflected
evangelical concerns about secularism and the perceived erosion of
religious values in public life.
The Enduring Religious Sensibility in America
Religion has remained a central theme in American society,
adapting to changes while maintaining a strong presence in public life.
- American religious life has become increasingly
pluralistic, incorporating diverse faiths and practices.
- The focus has shifted from doctrinal beliefs to
ethical and emotional expressions of faith.
- Unlike other Western nations, American religious
involvement has not declined, demonstrating resilience against materialism
and political entanglement.
- The course highlights the complexity and richness of
American religious history, suggesting further exploration of its themes
and developments.
Civil Religion in America
America is rich in civil religious sites that symbolize its
national identity and values.
- Sacred sites include Plymouth Rock, Gettysburg, and
Arlington Cemetery.
- These locations serve as focal points for
understanding American civil religion.
Ceremonies and Festivals
Religious ceremonies and festivals punctuate the American
calendar, reflecting diverse traditions.
- Major celebrations include Christmas, Easter,
Hanukkah, Kwanzaa, and Ramadan.
- These moments of "sacred time" reveal
significant patterns in religious behavior.
Religious Change and Conversion
Religious change is common in America, with many
individuals switching traditions or creating new ones.
- Millions of Americans convert to different faiths
throughout their lives.
- The motivations for conversion are complex and provide
insight into American spirituality.
Diversity of Religious Groups
The United States is home to a vast array of religious
groups, showcasing its pluralism.
- Hundreds of religious denominations exist, reflecting
a wide spectrum of beliefs.
- The diversity is not due to insignificance but rather
the limitations of space in discussion.
The Role of Religion in Society
Religion has been central to the development of American
society and culture.
- Religious motives were significant in the 17th-century
settlement, especially in New England.
- The American Revolution fostered a tolerant religious
society, allowing for diverse beliefs.
Evolution of American Religion
American religion has shifted from doctrinal purity to
ethical and emotional intensity.
- The Great Awakening and subsequent revivals emphasized
emotional experiences in faith.
- Evangelical revivalism spurred major social reform
movements in the 19th century.
Pluralism in 19th Century America
The 19th century saw a significant increase in religious
pluralism in the U.S.
- Large Catholic populations from various countries
challenged the Protestant majority.
- Jewish immigration contributed to the emergence of a
"Judeo-Christian tradition."
Continued Religious Involvement in the 20th Century
Despite modernization, America maintained high levels of
religious involvement in the 20th century.
- Religion served as a link to ethnic identity for
immigrant groups.
- Religious organizations played key roles in social
reforms, including the civil rights movement.
Resilience of American Religiosity
American religiosity has persisted despite challenges and
claims of its decline.
- Events like the Scopes Monkey Trial did not diminish
fundamentalism; it grew stronger.
- The 1960s brought challenges to tradition, but the
religious impulse remained robust.
Unique Nature of American Religion
- The U.S. is characterized as an unusually religious nation compared to other
Western countries.
- The historical context of American religion is complex
and often surprising.
- The interplay of various religious traditions
continues to shape American identity.
American Religious History Overview
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