Jesus and His Jewish Influences
This teaching provides a comprehensive scholarly exploration of Judaism during the late Second Temple period and its influence on Jesus and early Christianity. It covers the historical, religious, and cultural contexts, Jewish sects, diaspora communities, political upheavals, apocalyptic literature, and the transformation of Judaism following the destruction of the Second Temple, integrating archaeological, biblical, and historical sources.
Judaism in the Late Second Temple Period and Jesus's Jewish Background
The course begins by situating Jesus within the context of late Second Temple Judaism (2nd century B.C.–1st century A.D.), emphasizing the intertwined geographic and religious identity of Jews originating from Judah. It highlights the distinction between ancient temples, exclusive houses of deity where sacrifices were performed by priests, and synagogues as congregational worship spaces. The First Temple, built by Solomon around 960 B.C., was destroyed in 586 B.C., and the Second Temple, rebuilt under Persian rule and expanded by Herod the Great, stood until 70 A.D.
Ancient Judaism shared features with other Mediterranean religions but was distinct in mandating a single temple in Jerusalem, hereditary priesthood, and a corpus of divine laws (Torah) governing all aspects of life. The document clarifies that ancient Judaism was better described as monolatrous, worshiping one chief god among many, rather than strictly monotheistic in the modern sense. The God of Israel was seen as the "Most High God," a concept reflected in biblical texts.
Sacred mountains such as Mount Sinai and the Temple Mount symbolize divine law-giving and worship. Jesus’s Sermon on the Mount echoes this tradition of law reinterpretation. The united Israelite kingdom under Saul, David, and Solomon established Jerusalem and the Temple as religious and political centers, but after Solomon's death, the kingdom split into Israel and Judah, leading to tensions and the exile of the northern tribes.
King Josiah’s reforms centralized worship in Jerusalem and exclusive Yahweh worship, but the Babylonian conquest destroyed Solomon’s Temple in 586 B.C., initiating the Babylonian Exile—a trauma influencing later Jewish and Christian prophetic thought, including Jesus’s predictions of the Temple’s destruction.
The Persian king Cyrus allowed Judeans to return and rebuild Jerusalem and the Second Temple, but a schism arose between returning Judeans and Samaritans, descendants of northern Israelites who had intermarried and established a rival temple on Mount Gerizim. This division is reflected in New Testament narratives such as the Good Samaritan parable and Jesus’s encounter with a Samaritan woman.
Jewish Diaspora, Hellenistic Influence, and Religious Transformation
The Jewish diaspora flourished in Babylonia, Persia, Egypt, and beyond, with communities maintaining identity through literature like Tobit and Esther, which emphasize divine presence and Jewish prominence in foreign courts. The Elephantine community in Egypt had a Yahweh temple, showing religious diversity within Judaism. Tax farming systems imposed burdens reflected in New Testament critiques of tax collectors.
The Golden Rule, originating in Leviticus, was interpreted variably among Jewish groups. The Qumran sect restricted it to their community, rabbis extended it to all Israelites, and Jesus expanded it universally to include love for enemies, reflecting a radical ethic tied to holiness and the Kingdom of God.
Alexander the Great’s conquest brought Judea under Greek influence, with Jewish traditions incorporating Alexander into eschatological visions. The Samaritans initially supported Alexander but were later expelled from Samaria. Hellenistic culture spread through Greek-style cities and institutions, causing tension between traditionalists and Hellenizers.
Under Ptolemaic and Seleucid rule, Judea was governed as a theocracy with the high priest and elders enforcing the Torah as royal law. The Heliodorus affair and Jason’s establishment of Greek institutions in Jerusalem alienated traditionalists. The Maccabean Revolt (167 B.C.) was a response to Antiochus IV Epiphanes’s outlawing of Judaism and temple desecration, leading to Jewish independence under the Hasmoneans and the origin of Hanukkah. The revolt and its aftermath influenced apocalyptic literature and New Testament Temple prophecies.
Apocalyptic Literature and Jewish Sects
Apocalyptic texts like Daniel and Enoch, written during times of persecution, reveal hidden knowledge and eschatological hope, featuring symbolic numbers, angelology, and messianic expectations. Daniel portrays Antiochus IV as a persecutor and introduces the "son of man" figure central to Christian Gospel themes.
The Hasmonean kingdom expanded Jewish territory and forcibly converted populations like the Idumeans. Internal conflicts and opposition arose, with groups like the Pharisees and Sadducees emerging. The Sadducees, aristocratic and conservative, accepted only the written Torah and rejected oral law and resurrection, while the Pharisees embraced oral traditions, resurrection, and angels, forming the foundation of Rabbinic Judaism. The Gospels suggest Jesus rejected Pharisaic oral law, indicating he was likely not a Pharisee.
The Dead Sea Scrolls, Qumran Sect, and the Essenes
Discovered near Qumran, the Dead Sea Scrolls include biblical, apocryphal, and sectarian texts reflecting a Jewish sect living communally with strict ritual purity. The sect, likely the Essenes described by Josephus, Philo, and Pliny, practiced desert separatism, communal living, and awaited an apocalyptic war between the Sons of Light and Darkness. Although classical sources describe the Essenes as celibate men without women, the scrolls indicate women were part of the community but with limited status.
Jesus shared some apocalyptic beliefs with the Qumran sect but differed in inclusivity, messianic expectations, and ritual purity practices, making it unlikely he was an Essene. John the Baptist, living ascetically near Qumran and practicing baptism, may have had Essene connections but diverged in theology and practice.
Jewish Diaspora in Alexandria and Philo Judaeus
The Jewish community in Alexandria thrived under the Ptolemies, translating the Torah into Greek (Septuagint) to reach a broader audience. Philo Judaeus (c. 20 B.C.–50 A.D.), a Jewish philosopher, combined Greek philosophy with Jewish scripture, influencing early Christian thought. During his lifetime, anti-Jewish violence and political tensions culminated in a pogrom and the dissolution of Jewish autonomous governance, with Philo appealing to the Roman emperor.
Herod the Great and Roman Rule
Herod the Great, appointed king of Judea in 40 B.C., consolidated power through political marriages and brutal eliminations of rivals. He was a prolific builder, reconstructing cities and the Second Temple. His reign ended in 4 B.C., and his kingdom was divided among his sons, with Herod Archelaus’s misrule leading to Roman prefect governance. Pontius Pilate, the most notable prefect, governed Judea harshly and presided over Jesus’s trial. Herod Antipas ruled Galilee, known for executing John the Baptist.
Social and Political Turmoil Leading to the Jewish Revolt
Following Herod Agrippa I’s death, Judea was governed by Roman procurators amid rising unrest, messianic movements, and extremist groups like the Sicarii. Early Christian leaders like James the Just faced opposition and execution under Jewish authorities. Paul’s Roman citizenship allowed him a trial in Rome, contrasting with Jesus’s crucifixion under Pilate.
The First Jewish Revolt and the Destruction of the Second Temple
The revolt began in 66 A.D. with Jewish uprisings and Roman military responses. Vespasian and his son Titus led campaigns culminating in the siege and destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 A.D. The city’s fall was followed by Roman triumphs and reorganization of Judea as a Roman province. Gospel parables such as the Wicked Tenants and the Wedding Banquet are interpreted as allusions to these events, symbolizing divine judgment and Israel’s loss.
Aftermath: Josephus, Rabbinic Judaism, and Apocalyptic Outlook
Flavius Josephus, a Jewish commander turned Roman historian, provides key accounts of the revolt, though his works display apologetic tendencies favoring Roman perspectives. After the revolt, Jewish society transformed with the rise of Rabbinic Judaism centered on Torah study and oral law codification (Mishnah and Talmud). Apocalyptic literature like 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch offered hope amid loss. The Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135 A.D.) was a final failed attempt to restore Jewish sovereignty, resulting in harsh Roman reprisals and Jewish exclusion from Jerusalem.
Jesus’s apocalyptic teachings emphasized imminent divine intervention, moral behavior, and healing, contrasting with the Qumran sect’s exclusivity and predeterminism. His miracles and ethics aligned with Jewish purity laws but were inclusive, welcoming marginalized individuals.
Selected Gospel Passages in Jewish Context
The document interprets specific Gospel passages within their Jewish framework:
These analyses situate Jesus’s ministry firmly within Jewish religious and cultural traditions, enhancing understanding of early Christianity’s roots.
Overall, this document offers an in-depth, nuanced study of Judaism’s development, sectarian diversity, diaspora experiences, political history, and religious transformations during the late Second Temple period, elucidating the Jewish background of Jesus and early Christianity through multiple scholarly lenses.