Philosophy of Religion Overview
Mike Ervin
Philosophy of Religion Overview
The teaching here is developed from a Teaching Company book on Philosophy of
Religion taught by Professor James Hall at the University of Richmond,
outlining the course scope, and lecture topics.
The teaching explores the philosophical examination of
ethical monotheism, focusing on the existence of God and the epistemological
questions surrounding it.
What is Philosophy?
Philosophy is a practical discipline that involves asking
and answering meta-questions through analytical and synthetic methods.
- Philosophy is
often misunderstood as merely subjective feelings or reflections.
- It consists of
four types of questions: fact, value, explanation, and meta-questions.
- Philosophical
analysis locates presuppositions and implications, while synthesis
integrates ideas into a coherent whole.
What is Religion?
Religion is a complex system of beliefs that varies widely
across cultures, but ethical monotheism serves as a focal point for this
course.
- Ethical
monotheism is the common core of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.
- Definitions of
religion can be essential, family resemblance, ostensive, or operational.
- Common
characteristics of religions include belief in the supernatural, a supreme
being, life after death, and moral practices.
What is Philosophy of Religion?
Philosophy of religion critically examines religious
beliefs and practices, distinguishing itself from apologetics, comparative
religion, psychology, history, and theology.
- It is not
apologetics, which defends faith, but rather a critical inquiry into
religious claims.
- It is not
comparative religion, which describes different religions without
evaluating beliefs.
- The central
question is whether religious knowledge is possible, and the focus is on ethical
monotheism.
How is the Word “God” Generally Used?
The term "God" is used in various contexts,
primarily designating a being worthy of worship, but its meaning can vary
significantly.
- "God" is a title, not a name, and can refer
to various entities across different religions.
- Worship involves veneration, prayer, and rituals
directed towards a being considered divine.
- Different religious frameworks (e.g., animism,
polytheism, monotheism) define "God" in distinct ways.
How Do Various Theists Use the Word “God”?
Theism encompasses various forms of belief in God, with
ethical monotheism being the most articulated in terms of divine
characteristics.
- Theism includes polytheism, dualism, and monotheism,
with monotheism being the focus of this teaching.
- Monotheism emphasizes the non-contingency of God,
known as aseity, which means God is not limited by anything else.
- Key attributes of God in monotheism include
omniscience and omnipotence, raising questions about divine intentions and
human actions.
Ethical Monotheism and Its Challenges
Ethical monotheism posits that a worthy deity must be
all-powerful, all-knowing, and morally flawless, raising questions about the
existence of such a being in a flawed world.
- Ethical monotheism requires a divine being without
moral flaws.
- Worship is reserved for a being that is all-powerful,
all-knowing, and good.
- The existence of evil and suffering challenges the
notion of a benevolent deity.
- Philosophical questions arise about the knowledge of
such a being's existence and the nature of divine intentions.
Understanding Knowledge in Religious Contexts
The teaching explores the nature of knowledge, particularly
in relation to the existence of God, emphasizing the importance of
justification and evidence.
- Knowledge is traditionally defined as "justified
true belief."
- The focus is on the justification aspect, particularly
in religious contexts.
- Radical skepticism questions the possibility of
knowing anything, but practical reasons support the assumption that
knowledge is attainable.
- Distinctions are made between what we know, believe,
and disbelieve, with evidence being crucial for claims of knowledge.
Types and Quality of Evidence
This section discusses the various kinds of evidence that
can support beliefs and the criteria for determining good evidence.
- Evidence can be experiential, rational, authoritative,
intuitive, or revelatory.
- Good evidence should be relevant, non-equivocal,
non-circular, replicable, and testable.
- The amount and quality of evidence required depend on
the context and stakes involved.
- Moving from disbelief to belief involves a testable
process of reasoning based on evidence.
Arguments for the Existence of God
The teaching outlines the importance of arguments in
determining the existence of God, focusing on cosmological, teleological, and
ontological arguments.
- Arguments are used to explain observed realities and
assess competing accounts.
- The cosmological argument posits that everything must
have a cause, leading to the idea of a first cause.
- The teleological argument infers design in nature,
suggesting a designer.
- The ontological argument claims that the very concept
of God necessitates God's existence.
The Ontological Argument Explained
The ontological argument asserts that God's existence is
inherent in the concept of God, independent of experience.
- A priori reasoning is used to argue for God's
existence based on definitions.
- Anselm's formulation states that God is "that
than which no greater can be conceived."
- Critics like Gaunilo and Kant challenge the argument,
claiming it does not prove existence in a factual sense.
- The argument is seen as valid but may not lead to the
conclusion of a singular, worship-worthy deity.
Critiques of the Ontological Argument
Critics argue that the ontological argument fails to
demonstrate God's existence, highlighting its limitations.
- Gaunilo's perfect island analogy illustrates the
absurdity of the argument.
- Kant argues that existence is not a property that can
be inferred from definitions.
- A priori arguments yield only analytic conclusions,
not synthetic ones about matters of fact.
- The argument may be valid against idolatry but does
not confirm the existence of a deity.
The Cosmological Argument's Structure
The cosmological argument seeks to establish God's
existence through the principle of sufficient reason, asserting that everything
must have a cause.
- It posits that every event has a cause, leading to the
necessity of a first cause.
- The argument can be presented in serial or aggregate
forms, both concluding that an uncaused cause must exist.
- Critics argue that the cosmological argument does not
necessarily lead to a single, worship-worthy deity.
Limitations of the Cosmological Argument
The cosmological argument faces challenges regarding its
conclusions about the nature of the universe's cause.
- Ockham's razor suggests that simpler explanations
should be preferred, limiting the need for a complex divine cause.
- The argument does not necessarily imply that the cause
is worthy of worship or possesses divine attributes.
- Multiple independent causes could exist, undermining
the monotheistic claim.
The Teleological Argument's Basis
The teleological argument infers God's existence from the
apparent design in nature, suggesting an intelligent designer.
- It emphasizes recognizable design and intention in the
universe.
- William Paley's analogy of a watchmaker illustrates
the argument's premise.
- Critics argue that the argument may not adequately
account for the complexity and imperfections in nature.
Critiques of the Teleological Argument
Skeptics challenge the teleological argument for inferring
too much from limited data and ignoring contrary evidence.
- The argument may engage in explanatory overkill by
assuming a divine designer with infinite attributes.
- It fails to account for negative aspects of the world,
such as suffering and evil.
- The rise of evolutionary theory provides alternative
explanations for complexity without invoking a designer.
The Role of Divine Encounters
Many believers cite personal encounters with the divine as
evidence of God's existence, bypassing traditional arguments.
- Historical and contemporary figures claim direct
experiences of God.
- Such encounters are often viewed as self-evident and
do not require inferential reasoning.
- However, interpretations of these experiences can vary
widely, raising questions about their reliability.
Interpretation of Divine Encounters
The interpretation of divine encounters is crucial, as
different perspectives can lead to varying conclusions about their
significance.
- Encounters require interpretation, which can introduce
bias and ambiguity.
- The reliability of such experiences is often
questioned, as they can be construed in multiple ways.
- A conservative approach suggests that interpretations
should be critically evaluated rather than accepted uncritically.
The Problem of Evil in Monotheism
The existence of evil poses a significant challenge to
ethical monotheism, questioning the nature of a benevolent deity.
- The presence of suffering and injustice raises doubts
about the character of the divine designer.
- Critics argue that the existence of evil is
incompatible with the notion of an all-good, all-powerful God.
- This issue is central to discussions about the
validity of theistic arguments and the nature of faith.
The Problem of Evil in Ethical Monotheism
The teaching discusses the challenges posed by the existence of
evil to the belief in a benevolent and omnipotent God.
- Ethical monotheists assert that the world is designed
and reflects the designer's character.
- The presence of evil, including natural disasters and
human atrocities, raises questions about the nature of the designer.
- Examples of evil include historical figures like
Hitler and natural phenomena like earthquakes and diseases.
- The argument concludes that if the world is flawed,
its designer may also be flawed and unworthy of worship.
Classifying Types of Evil
The teaching categorizes various forms of evil and their
implications for the existence of God.
- Three main types of evil are identified: individual
actions, social phenomena, and natural disasters.
- Individual evils include actions by figures like Osama
Bin Laden and Theodore Kaczynski.
- Social evils can be intended (e.g., eugenics) or
unintended (e.g., environmental impacts).
- Natural evils encompass events like meteor impacts and
diseases that occur without human input.
Arguments Against the Existence of God
The teaching outlines logical arguments that suggest the
existence of evil contradicts the existence of a perfect God.
- If a designer is worthy of worship, their creations
should be flawless.
- The world is not flawless, indicating that the
designer may not be worthy of worship.
- The argument follows a logical structure that leads to
the conclusion that if the world is flawed, the designer cannot be God.
Responses to the Problem of Evil
The teaching presents various responses to the argument from
evil, including theodicies.
- One response is to deny the validity of the argument
by rejecting modus tollens.
- Another response is to argue that the world is not
flawed or that evils are necessary for greater goods.
- The teaching mentions the concept of free will as a
justification for the existence of evil.
Non-Justifying Theodicies
The teaching explores the idea that some evils may not require
justification to be compatible with belief in God.
- Some argue that perceived flaws in the world are
misinterpretations of a perfect design.
- Others claim that evils stem from human actions rather
than divine will, excusing God from blame.
- The notion of logical necessity suggests that good
cannot exist without evil, complicating moral responsibility.
Justifying Evil Through Greater Goods
The teaching discusses the justification of evil as necessary
for achieving greater goods.
- Evils may be necessary for God's glory or as object
lessons for moral behavior.
- Some argue that suffering leads to the development of
virtues like bravery and generosity.
- The teaching raises questions about the extent to which
suffering is necessary for moral growth.
Justifying Natural Evil
The teaching examines the justification of natural evils and
their implications for divine existence.
- Some argue that natural evils are consequences of
human wrongdoing or serve as punishments.
- The teaching critiques the plausibility of these
justifications, especially regarding innocent beings suffering.
- It questions whether natural evils can be reconciled
with a loving and just God.
Justifying Human Evil Through Free Will
The teaching focuses on the free will theodicy as a
justification for human evil.
- The argument posits that freedom requires the
potential for evil, making it necessary for moral choice.
- Critics question why an omnipotent God could not
create beings that always choose good.
- The text also discusses the implications of demonic
influences on human actions.
The Role of Faith and Evidence
The teaching explores the relationship between faith and
evidence in religious belief.
- Many believers argue that faith transcends evidence
and rationality.
- The teaching critiques the idea that faith can exist
independently of evidence or logical reasoning.
- It suggests that a disconnect between faith and
evidence may lead to irrational beliefs.
Paradigms and Their Impact on Understanding
The teaching introduces the concept of paradigms and their
influence on understanding religious and scientific discourse.
- Paradigms shape how individuals interpret experiences
and categorize knowledge.
- The text discusses the incommensurability of rival
paradigms, making it difficult to compare them.
- It emphasizes the importance of evaluating paradigms
based on their effectiveness and adaptability.
Evaluating and Choosing Paradigms
The teaching concludes with a discussion on how paradigms can
be evaluated and changed.
- Paradigm shifts can occur through exposure to new
ideas or experiences.
- The text examines the reasons why individuals may
resist changing their paradigms.
- It highlights the importance of having criteria for
assessing the effectiveness of different paradigms.
Intentional Paradigm Change and Culture
The teaching discusses how intentional paradigm changes occur
within cultural and scientific contexts.
- Paradigm shifts can be intentional and are not limited
by the notion of incommensurability.
- Changes occur within existing paradigms, influenced by
cultural inheritance and intellectual discourse.
- Models for intentional change include capitulation to
new cultures, assimilation, and language immersion.
- Responses to intentional change can stem from
discontent, exposure to new ideas, or transformative experiences.
Language Games in Theistic Discourse
This section explores the concept of language games and
their application in theistic discussions.
- Language games, as proposed by Wittgenstein, emphasize
the use of language over its meaning.
- Different language games have distinct rules, and not
all can be evaluated by the same criteria.
- Theistic discourse includes various language games
such as promises, moral commands, and storytelling.
- Evaluating theistic language requires understanding
its unique felicity conditions rather than applying scientific standards.
Fabulation: Theism as Storytelling
The teaching analyzes religious discourse as a form of
storytelling aimed at conveying moral truths.
- Religious stories serve various purposes, including
moral instruction and cultural identity.
- Effective stories need to resonate with truth, be
believable, and have a clear point.
- Common themes in religious stories include moral
frameworks, group cohesion, and comfort in adversity.
- The effectiveness of a story is assessed based on its
clarity, credibility, and ability to motivate behavior.
Theistic Stories and Moral Frameworks
This section examines how theistic narratives contribute to
moral understanding and cultural cohesion.
- Theistic stories often articulate moral values more
effectively than prescriptive rules.
- They can provide a sense of authority and motivation
for moral behavior through narratives of judgment and reward.
- However, reliance on divine authority can undermine
personal responsibility and autonomy.
- Theism can both uphold cultural values and resist
social reform, leading to potential stagnation.
The Role of Theism in Social Reform
The teaching discusses the dual role of theism in both
preserving and reforming societal values.
- Theism can reinforce existing power structures but
also inspire social change through prophetic narratives.
- Examples of repression include justifications for
slavery and gender inequality, while reform examples include abolition and
suffrage movements.
- The tension between priestly and prophetic traditions
within theism reflects broader societal struggles for progress.
- Both theistic and secular narratives can contribute to
cultural critique and reform efforts.
Conclusions on Theistic Discourse
The final section summarizes the philosophical reflections
on the nature of theistic claims and their implications.
- The existence of God cannot be definitively proven or
disproven, leading to a Scottish verdict on the matter.
- Religious claims are better understood as expressions
of faith rather than factual assertions.
- Theistic discourse enriches the understanding of human
experience by adding an intentional dimension to events.
- The ongoing dialogue between theistic and secular
perspectives is essential for cultural and moral development.
Historical Context of Philosophers
The text provides biographical notes on significant
philosophers and their contributions to the fields of philosophy and religion.
- David Hume (1711–1776): Scottish philosopher known for
empiricism and works like "A Treatise of Human Nature."
- William James (1842–1910): American philosopher and
psychologist, focused on religion and mysticism; authored "Varieties
of Religious Experience."
- St. John of the Cross (1542–1591): Spanish mystic and
poet, known for "The Ascent of Mt. Carmel."
- Immanuel Kant (1724–1804): German philosopher who
critiqued Hume's empiricism; authored "Critique of Pure Reason."
- Sir Anthony Kenny (1931–): British philosopher with
interests in moral philosophy and philosophical theology.
- Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855): Danish philosopher and
early existentialist, known for "Either/Or."
- Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996): American philosopher of
science, known for "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions."
- C. S. Lewis (1898–1963): English writer and lay
apologist, known for "The Chronicles of Narnia."
- Alasdair MacIntyre (1929–): Scottish philosopher known
for "After Virtue."
- Kai Nielsen (1926–): North American philosopher
critical of theism; authored "Ethics without God."
- Rudolf Otto (1869–1937): German theologian known for
"The Idea of the Holy."
- William Paley (1743–1805): Anglican theologian known
for "Natural Theology."
- Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914): American
philosopher known for pragmatism and logic.
- Alvin Plantinga (1932–): American philosopher known
for his work in philosophy of religion.
- Bertrand Russell (1872–1970): English philosopher and
logician known for "Principles of Mathematics."
- Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976): English philosopher known
for "The Concept of Mind."
- John R. Searle (1932–): American philosopher of
language known for "Speech Acts."
- Richard Swinburne (1934–): English philosopher known
for works on the existence of God.
- St. Teresa of Avila (1515–1582): Spanish mystic known
for "The Interior Castle."
- Paul Tillich (1886–1965): German-American theologian
known for "The Courage to Be."
- Voltaire (1694–1778): French philosopher known for
"Candide."
- William of Ockham (c. 1280–c. 1349): English
Scholastic known for Ockham's razor.
- Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951): Influential
philosopher known for "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus."
Essential Readings in Philosophy
The teaching lists essential readings that provide foundational
knowledge in the philosophy of religion.
- John Hick's "Philosophy of Religion" is a
definitive introduction to analytic philosophy of religion.
- E. D. Klemke's "Philosophy: Contemporary
Perspectives on Perennial Issues" offers a wide range of
philosophical issues.
- Timothy A. Robinson's "God" is a
well-balanced collection of theistic philosophical issues.
Recommended Readings for Further Study
The text suggests additional readings that enhance
understanding of philosophical concepts and arguments.
- John Hick's "Classical and Contemporary Readings
in the Philosophy of Religion" includes many essays not found
elsewhere.
- Jay F. Rosenberg's "The Practice of Philosophy: A
Handbook for Beginners" is a practical guide for newcomers to
philosophy.
Supplementary Readings on Religion
The text provides a list of supplementary monographs that
delve into philosophical issues related to religion.
- Karen Armstrong's "A History of God" traces
the development of the concept of God in major religions.
- Martin Buber's "I and Thou" explores human
moral relationships through a personal concept of God.
- David Hume's "Dialogues Concerning Natural
Religion" critiques traditional arguments for God's existence.
General Philosophy and Reference Works
The text includes general philosophy references that are
useful for broader philosophical inquiries.
- Robert Audi's "The Cambridge Dictionary of
Philosophy" is a reliable reference for philosophical terms.
- Bertrand Russell's "The Problems of
Philosophy" is a classic introduction to key philosophical issues.
Philosophy of Religion Overview
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