The Origins of Biblical Monotheism
Mike Ervin
“The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic
Background and the Ugaritic Texts” by Mark S. Smith is a foundational scholarly
work that explores how monotheism, as seen in the Hebrew Bible, emerged from a
polytheistic cultural and religious environment. First published in 2001, the
book focuses heavily on comparisons between biblical texts and Ugaritic
literature—religious texts discovered at the ancient city of Ugarit (modern-day
Ras Shamra in Syria), which date to the Late Bronze Age.
Below is a comprehensive summary of the book’s contents,
arguments, and implications:
Author Background
- Mark S. Smith
is a leading scholar of ancient Near Eastern religions and the Hebrew
Bible.
- He is known for
integrating archaeological, textual, and comparative literary analysis in
his work.
- In this book,
he aims to reconstruct Israel’s religious development, particularly the
shift from polytheism to monotheism.
Main Thesis
Smith argues that biblical monotheism evolved gradually
from Israel’s Canaanite polytheistic roots and that early Israelite religion
was not originally monotheistic, but monolatrous (worshiping one god without
denying the existence of others). Through time, this evolved into true
monotheism (the belief in only one God).
Structure and Content Summary
1. Introduction and Methodology
- Smith clarifies
the terms polytheism, monolatry, and monotheism.
- He critiques
traditional theological approaches that read monotheism back into the
earliest biblical texts.
- Emphasizes the
comparative method, using Ugaritic texts to understand Israel’s religion
in context.
2. Ugaritic Religion and Deities
- Ugarit provides
a rich pantheon of deities such as El, Baal, Asherah, Anat, Mot, and
others.
- El, the high
god, shares many characteristics with Yahweh in early Israelite texts.
- Baal is a storm
god, often compared to Yahweh in poetic and narrative functions.
- Smith suggests
that Yahweh may have absorbed roles and attributes of several Ugaritic
deities over time.
3. El and Yahweh
- El is the chief
god of the Ugaritic pantheon, and his qualities—wisdom, fatherhood,
kingship—are paralleled in Yahweh.
- Early Israelite
religion may have viewed Yahweh as a form or manifestation of El.
- Biblical titles
for God such as El Elyon, El Shaddai, and El Olam point to El’s lingering
influence.
4. The Divine Council
- Ugaritic texts
describe a divine council led by El, including various other gods.
- Biblical
passages (e.g., Psalm 82, 1 Kings 22) reflect similar council imagery,
with Yahweh as chief.
- Over time,
these other divine beings are recast as angels or demoted, reflecting a
theological shift.
5. The Role of Baal
- Baal was a
popular deity among Canaanites and had storm god functions like Yahweh.
- The Bible
contains polemics against Baal worship (e.g., 1 Kings 18), suggesting
competition between Baal and Yahweh.
- Yahweh’s storm
theophanies (e.g., Psalm 29) seem to mirror Baal traditions, reattributed
to Yahweh.
6. Asherah and the Female Divine
- Asherah was the
consort of El in Ugaritic texts and possibly associated with Yahweh in
early Israel.
- Archaeological
evidence (e.g., inscriptions from Kuntillet ‘Ajrud) refers to “Yahweh and
his Asherah.”
- Smith discusses
the gradual suppression of Asherah worship, as Israelite religion moved
toward exclusive monotheism.
7. The Process of Monotheization
- The move from
monolatry to monotheism was not sudden.
- Influenced by
prophetic voices (e.g., Isaiah, Hosea), political centralization, and the
Babylonian exile.
- The Exilic and
post-Exilic periods are especially critical: Yahweh is now described as
the only god (e.g., Isaiah 45:5).
8. Theological and Cultural Implications
- Monotheism was
not a purely spiritual development but deeply tied to social, political,
and cultural factors.
- Theological
exclusivism helped define Israelite identity over and against its
neighbors.
- The process
included reinterpretation and absorption of old traditions rather than a
clean break.
Key Concepts and Terms
Term Explanation Polytheism Belief in multiple
gods. Monolatry Worship of one god
while accepting the existence of others. Monotheism Belief in and
worship of only one god.
Ugaritic texts Ancient Northwest
Semitic texts discovered at Ugarit, revealing Canaanite religious beliefs. Divine Council Assembly of gods
or divine beings under a high god, reflected in both Ugaritic and biblical
texts.
Significance of the Book
- Challenges traditional views that see monotheism as
unique and original to Israel.
- Offers a historically grounded explanation for the
development of biblical theology.
- Enhances understanding of the continuity and
discontinuity between Canaanite religion and the Hebrew Bible.
Reception and Impact
- Widely respected in academic circles, though
controversial in conservative theological contexts.
- Praised for its philological rigor, methodological
clarity, and bold conclusions.
- Considered essential reading for students of biblical
studies, ancient Near Eastern religion, and theology.
Final Thoughts
Smith’s work is not meant to undermine faith but to
deepen understanding by showing how complex and dynamic the evolution of
Israel’s religious ideas was. By comparing the Bible with the wider ancient
Near Eastern world, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism helps explain how
monotheism emerged out of real human history, rather than appearing fully
formed.
Here is a chapter-by-chapter breakdown of Mark S.
Smith’s The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic Background
and the Ugaritic Texts. This summary walks through the major arguments and
themes developed in each chapter.
Chapter 1: Introduction
- Purpose: To examine the emergence of biblical
monotheism in light of Israel’s polytheistic background, especially using
Ugaritic texts.
- Smith critiques the traditional assumption that
Israelite religion was always monotheistic.
- Outlines key terms: polytheism, monolatry, monotheism,
and henotheism.
- Stresses the importance of Ugaritic literature
(14th–12th century BCE) in understanding Israel’s religious context.
- Introduces the comparative method and warns against
simplistic evolutionary models.
Chapter 2: God and the Gods
- Explores the variety of divine figures in Ugaritic
religion: El, Baal, Asherah, Anat, Mot, and others.
- Shows that these deities had distinct personalities
and spheres of influence.
- In early Israel, Yahweh was worshipped alongside or
above other gods—a form of monolatry.
- Introduces the concept of a pantheon or divine council
in both Ugaritic and biblical texts (e.g., Psalm 82).
Chapter 3: El, Yahweh, and History
- Argues that El, the chief god of the Ugaritic
pantheon, shares many traits with Yahweh in early Israelite religion.
- Titles such as El Shaddai, El Elyon, and El Olam
reflect a fusion or continuity with El traditions.
- Early Israelites may have identified Yahweh with El,
especially during the tribal period.
- Cites evidence from both biblical texts and
inscriptions (e.g., Genesis, Deuteronomy, and poetic literature).
Chapter 4: Baal, Yahweh, and the Storm-God Tradition
- Compares Baal, the Ugaritic storm and fertility god,
with Yahweh, who also displays storm-god features (e.g., in Psalms).
- Explores poetic parallels between Baal’s epithets and
those of Yahweh (e.g., “Rider on the Clouds”).
- Examines how Yahweh assimilated Baal’s roles as a
warrior, provider of rain, and controller of chaos.
- Highlights the prophetic opposition to Baal worship as
part of the process of theological differentiation.
Chapter 5: The Divine Council
- Describes the assembly of gods or “sons of El” in
Ugaritic religion.
- Shows how this mythic structure appears in biblical
texts: Psalm 29, Psalm 82, 1 Kings 22, and Job 1–2.
- Smith argues that Israel’s divine council was not
metaphorical in origin; rather, it evolved to reflect monotheistic
ideology, with other gods becoming angels or divine messengers.
- Demonstrates how Yahweh gradually takes sole
leadership, displacing other divine figures.
Chapter 6: Asherah and the “Female” Divine
- Focuses on Asherah, the mother goddess and consort of
El in Ugaritic religion.
- Presents archaeological and inscriptional evidence
that Asherah may have been venerated alongside Yahweh (e.g., “Yahweh and
his Asherah” inscriptions from Kuntillet Ajrud and Khirbet el-Qom).
- Analyzes the biblical polemics against Asherah worship
in Deuteronomistic and prophetic texts.
- Argues that the elimination of the female divine was
part of the movement toward exclusive Yahwism.
Chapter 7: From Polytheism to Monotheism
- Traces the gradual decline of other gods in Israelite
religion and the exclusive elevation of Yahweh.
- Prophets like Deutero-Isaiah play a key role in
articulating full monotheism: “I am the LORD, and there is no other”
(Isaiah 45:5).
- Discusses how earlier texts still reflect remnants of
polytheism or monolatry.
- Connects religious changes to historical events:
Assyrian domination, Babylonian exile, and return.
Chapter 8: Conclusions and Implications
- Reiterates that biblical monotheism is a historical
development, not a sudden innovation.
- Monotheism was shaped by social, political, and
theological forces over centuries.
- Ugaritic texts illuminate the shared cultural heritage
of ancient Israel and Canaan.
- Concludes that understanding this development
enhances—not diminishes—appreciation for biblical faith.
🧾
Appendices and Notes
- Smith includes technical appendices with comparative
lexicons, philological notes, and bibliographic references.
- These provide additional evidence from Ugaritic,
Akkadian, and Hebrew for specialists.
Themes
Across the Book
- Continuity and contrast between Israel and Canaan.
- The evolution of Yahweh’s identity: from one god among
many to the only God.
- Theological tension between ancient traditions and
later exclusivism.
- The absorption and reinterpretation of mythic elements
from neighboring cultures.
The Origins of Biblical Monotheism